Bobbin | Structure of the Bobbin

Bobbin is a cylindrical or slightly tapered barrel, with or without flanges, for holding slubbings, rovings, or yarns.

The Structure of the Bobbin
The shape of the bobbin The tube is usually made of paperboard, plastics and has a conical shape similar to the spindle tip; the yarn is wound on the tube leaving a free space (10 ÷ 13 mm) at both ends. A full bobbin (Figure) consists of three different parts:

1.  The “H2” tapered base (kernel),
2.  The “H1”cylindrical part at the centre (yarn package or buildup),
3.  The “H” cone-shape upper end A bobbin is wound starting from the base to the tip by overlapping the various yarn layers frustrum-like; except for the kernel, this gives a conical shape to the material from the edge of the kernel to the tip of the bobbin. 

Each step of the bobbin formation consists essentially of the overlapping of a main yarn layer with a cross-wound tying layer. The main layer is wound during the slow upward travel of the ring rail; the yarn coils laid one next to the other provide the bobbin build-up. The cross layer, made of distant coils inclined downwards, is formed during the quick downward travel of the rail. This system keeps the main layers separated, in order to prevent them from being pressed one inside the other (thus resulting in a quite difficult or almost impossible unwinding of the yarn). 

Bobbin structure

The ratio between the number of yarn coils wound on the bobbin during the upward travel of the rail and the number of yarn coils wound during the downward travel usually range between 2:1 and 2.5:1 ; for this reason the rail must raise slowly (A) and lower quite quickly (B). When unwinding the bobbin at high speed (D) the simultaneous unwinding of many coils could lead to entanglements of the yarn (this does not occur in .C. case).

The yarn wound on the bobbin during each upward and downward travel of the ring rail is called run-out.; to facilitate successive unwinding, the length of the run-out ranges from 3 to 5 m and is smaller for coarse yarns and greater for finer ones. The travel of the rail is considered sufficient when it is 15÷18% larger than the 

ring spinning diameter.

The structure of the bobbin is the result of the continuous motion of the winding point of the yarn on the bobbin affected by the ring rail. The rail travels up and down along the vertical axis to form the main layers, and on the cross axis (with an upward progressive increment) to homogeneously distribute the yarn on the bobbin .

The increment value, i.e. the space between the two subsequent upward travels of the ring rail (winding cycles), determines the forming bobbin diameter with respect to two different parameters: the run-out and the yarn count.

To obtain bobbins of a given diameter it is necessary to consider that the increment is inversely proportional to the yarn count (Nm) and directly proportional to the length of the run-out; in other words, after establishing the diameter of the bobbin, with the same yarn count, when doubling the run-out length, the increment must also be doubled or, with the same run-out length, when doubling the yarn count (Nm) the increment value must be halved.

Definition and Classification of Textile Neps | Count of Neps

Any small entanglement of textile fibers that can not be unraveled, formed during carding or ginning.

Classification of Neps
For cotton fiber; there are five types of Neps. These are –

Process Neps: Commonly produced by faulty carding or up to spinning yarn.

Mixed Neps: Fibres tangle around a foreign materials. For instance – Grit.

Immature Neps: Generally form by processing immature fibre.

Homogeneous Dead Neps: A tangle of nearly all dead fibres.

Fuzz Neps: A fault of short fuzz fibers .

Count of Neps
Nep count is the no. of neps per 100 square inches of card web forming ( a standerd hank of sliver of 12 NE on a 40 inch wide card).

How To Measure the Count of Neps?
At first a web is collected from the card placed on a 10 inch × 10 inch black board. Then the neps are counted and the no. of neps found is corrected fro any difference in hank or card width.
Mathematically, Nep Count, n = m × 100 [ m = no. of neps per inch square card web].

Process Flow Chart of Textile Finishing Process

Textile finishing usually includes treatments such as scouring, bleaching, dyeing and/or printing, the final mechanical or chemical finishing operations, that during this stage are carried out on textile products (staple, sliver or top, yarns or filaments, woven or knitted fabrics) to enhance their basic characteristics like dye penetration, printability, wettability, colour, hand, and appearance.

By textile finishing, we also mean all the processing operations that, though included in the socalled finishing stage, are generally applied to the fabrics to improve their appearance, hand and properties, at times in accordance with their field of application.

The finishing stage plays a fundamental role in the excellency of the commercial results of textiles, which strictly depend on market requirements that are becoming increasingly stringent and unpredictable, permitting very short response times for textile manufacturers.

The latest machines on the market used for finishing operations generally offer multi-purpose applications; the flexibility and versatility features of these machines are uninterruptedly evolving to grant excellent consistency of the results.

Finishing operations can be carried out by means of discontinuous, continuous and semicontinuous systems.
 

Discontinuous or Batch-type Systems: 

All the operations are carried out on a single machine; it is therefore necessary to load the machine, carry out the treatments following a predetermined cycle, unload the machine and finally wash it thoroughly before starting a new cycle. This working process is extremely flexible and is suitable for processing small lots: for example, it is possible to a carry out a scouring treatment on a single machine, then a bleaching one followed by a dyeing process. For the production of large lots, the discontinuous process is labour-intensive, i.e. it requires many operators to load and unload the material; it also entails long processing times and results that can vary from one batch to another.

Continuous Systems: 

The operations are carried out by means of a series of machines; every machine carries out always and solely the same process. Every machine is assembled according to specific production requirements. A system like this entails high start-up costs and a complex setup but once the system has started, it requires a smaller staff and grants excellent repeatability and high output rates; continuous systems are therefore suitable for manufacturing large lots of products with the highest cost-efficiency.

Semi-continuous Systems: 

In these mixed systems several operations are carried out with both continuous and discontinuous machines. For example, a continuous pad-batch machine is used to wet the fabric and a discontinuous system is then used for other treatments. These mixed systems are suitable for processing small and medium lots; they require reasonable start-up costs and grant quite good reproducibility. 

The Textile Finishing Stage:

What is ERP Software? | Functions of ERP Software’s in Textile |Application of ERP Software in Textiles

ERP Software:
ERP(Enterprise Resource Planning) is revolutionary concept in the contemporary world. All the information of an enterprise under one roof for assisting planning and implementing decisions having complete visibility that is the main objective of ERP.

ERP Software’s in Textiles:
ERP Software’s are available in different sectors in textiles. Such as:

1. ERP-Software for Home Textiles
2. ERP-Software for Spinning Mills
3. ERP-Software for Weaving Mills
4. ERP-Software for Textile Processing Mills

What are the Benefits of ERP ?

1. Easily monitoring of an industry
2. Compiling report within a very short time
3. No chance for data manipulation
4. Saving of time
5. Easy access anywhere from the world

Functions of ERP Software’s in Textiles
ERP Software allows the following functions :

1. Sales order entry
2. Procurement
3. Inventory
4. Production
5. Costing
6. Managing Dye house

1. Sales Order Entry:
Considering color size combinations , creation of preformed invoice,shipping document, sales invoice, picking of finished goods, packing list generation, handling letter of credit facilities.

2. Procurement:
Requisition, approvals, purchase order creation, receiving goods through receiving documents.

3. Inventory:
Availability of raw materials/work-in progress/finished goods per lot, container, batch wise, order wise.

4. Production:
Production steps with consumption breakdown, starting and end dates, waste calculation, production progress tracking.

5. Costing:
Pre-costing by merchandisers and actual costing from raw materials in reality utilized in production floor.

6. Managing Dye House:
A lot of waste come from dyeing industry that certainly increases the fabric price. ERP software facilities dye house management providing chemical inventory, batch management system, daily production report with waste calcularion, recipe creation, lab-management, actual cost calculation, reprocess dyeing etc. in their recognized ERP system. 

Ring Traveller | Features of a Ring Traveller | Types of Traveller |Factors for Ring Traveller Selection

Traveller

Traveller is a tiny element which is used in ring spinning system , acts as the main of twist imparter during yarn production. On the other word , it is also called the twisting element merely responsible for twist impartion.It is a C-shaped, metal clip that revolves around the ring on a ring spinning frame. It guides the yarn onto the bobbin as twist is inserted into the yarn.

Ring Traveller

The traveller allows the twisting and the correct delivery of the yarn on the bobbin. The take up speed of the yarn, which corresponds to the difference between the peripheral speed of the bobbin and the peripheral speed of the traveller, is equal to the peripheral speed of the delivery cylinders of the drafting unit. The difference between spindle rpm and the traveler rpm, within a specific unit of time, gives the number of coils deposited on the bobbin within a specific unit of time. Therefore, with the same spindle speed, the traveller rpm increases along with the bobbin diameter while the number of coils wound on the bobbin decreases.

When the traveller rotates the high contact pressure between the ring and the traveller creates huge friction forces that generate heat; the traveller can reach temperatures exceeding 200 ÷ 300 °C since its small mass does not allow a quick transfer of the heat to the air or to the ring. For this reason, significant improvements in ring spinning can be hardly achieved with the materials currently available, since the speed of the traveller has apparently reached its maximum limit (approx. 33 ÷ 35 m/sec for steel travellers and 45 ÷ 47 m/s for nylon-glass fibre travellers). This is why the traveller used for producing a specific type of yarn must feature the most suitable shape, mass, material, finish and cross section. To reach the highest speeds, the shape of the traveller must correspond to the shape of the ring.

This creates a very large contact surface, which facilitates heat transfer; the surface must also be very smooth to grant a low barycentre. The flat profile must allow space enough for the yarn since the friction between the yarn and the ring could increase the yarn hairiness and consequently the formation of flying fibres.

The mass of the traveller determines the friction force between the ring and the traveller, the balloon size and consequently the take up tension of the yarn. If the mass of the traveller is very small, the balloon will be sufficiently large, the take up tension will be limited and the bobbin will be soft; on the contrary, a heavy traveller will determine an increase in the take up tension and a greater number of breaks. In a few words, the mass of the traveller must be strictly proportional to the yarn mass (count and resistance) and to the speed of the spindle. 

Features of a Traveller:

1. Generate less heat
2. Dissipate heat fastly
3. Have sufficient elasticity for easy insertion and to retain its original shape after insertion
4. Friction between ring and traveller should be minimal
5. It should have excellent wear resistance for longer life
6. Hardness of the traveller should be less than the ring

Types of Traveller:

Traveller are normally three types. They are:

1. OS -Type
2. C-Type
3. G-Type

Factors for Ring Traveller Selection :

1. Count of yarn to be spun
2. Fiber used in the yarn
3. Ring cup diameter
4. Spindle speed

Basic Woven Structure | Classification of Basic Woven Structures

The form of interlacing of warp and weft yarns can be divided basically into three categories- plain, twill and satin/sateen weave. These three kinds of forms are called basic weaves.

1. Plain Weave: 

The simplest of all weaves is the plain weave. Each filling yarn passes alternately over and under one warp yarn. Each warp yarn passes alternately over and under each filling yarn. Some examples of plain-weave fabric are crepe, taffeta, organdy, and muslin. The plain weave may also have variations, which include the following:

Warp rib weave- Warp rib weaves may be described as plain weave in which two or more picks are inserted in the same shed. Warp rib weaves are normally used in warp faced constructions. The warp cover factor and the warp crimp are substantially higher than the weft cover factor and the weft crimp. The intention is to produce fabrics with prominent weft-way rib formed by the crowns of the warp threads.
 

Weft rib weave- Weft rib may be described as plain weave in which two or more ends weave together as one. It is difficult to achieve very high weft cover factors in weft faced plain-weave cloths. By using two finer ends weaving as one, it becomes possible to achieve higher weft cover factor. Such cloths are expensive to weave and not very common.
 

Basket, matt or hopsack weave- In matt, basket or hopsack weaves two or more ends and two or more picks weave as one. The simplest and commonest of these weave is 2/2 matt.
(Refer to Annex 2 for weave diagrams)

2. Twill Weave: 

A weave that repeats on 3 or more ends and picks & produces diagonal lines on the face of the fabric. A twill weave is characterized by diagonal rib (twill lines) on the face of the fabric. These twill lines are produced by letting all warp ends interlace in the same way but displacing the interlacing points of each end by one pick relative to that of the previous end. In twill weave line moves sinisterly (Right - Left, Z twill) and dextrally (Left - Right, S twill). Common derivatives of twill weave are as follows:
 

Zigzag Weave- If the direction of the diagonal in a twill fabric is reversed periodically across the width, a zigzag effect is produced. Zigzag weave is achieved by simply combining two S and Z twill weaves of equal repeat.

Diamond weave- Diamond weaves are achieved by combining two symmetrical zigzag weaves of equal repeat. Diamond designs are vertically and horizontally symmetrical.
 

Herringbone weave- In Herringbone weave also the twill direction is reversed periodically like zigzag weave but at the point of reversal the order of interlacement is also reversed and then twill line commence as usual.
 

Diaper weave- Diaper weaves are produced when we combine two Herringbone designs. Diaper designs are diagonally symmetrical. (Refer to Annex 2 for weave diagrams)

3. Satin/sateen Weave: 

The satin weave is characterized by floating yarns used to produce a high luster on one side of a fabric. Warp yarns of low twist float or pass over four or more filling yarns. The low twist and the floating of the warp yarns, together with the fiber content, give a high degree of light reflection. Weights of satin fabrics range from chiffon satin to heavy duchesse satin. The sateen weave is similar to a satin construction except that in the sateen weave, the filling yarns float and are visible on the surface of fabric. Examples: cotton sateen, and damask.

Textile Softening | Fabric Softening Process | Types ofSoftener/Softening Agents

Softening
As a general rule, each fibre has its specific softness value, which depends on its chemical composition and physical structure (less crystallinity = greater softness). The fineness of the fibre or of the filament directly affects the softness of the yarn (woollens, worsteds, microfibers etc.). The yarn twist ratio is inversely proportional to its softness.

The weave also contributes to reducing (closer weave = cloth) or increasing (looser weave = satin) the fabric softness. Furthermore, a greater number of yarns per centimetre increase the stiffness of the fabric, thus reducing its softness.

Softening is carried out when the softness characteristics of a certain fabric must be improved, always carefully considering the composition and properties of the substrate. It is also worth underlining that no standard methods have been developed and established to determine exactly what the softness of a fabric is. This evaluation is therefore almost personal and carried out on the basis of operator.s experience. It is anyway possible to distinguish between many types of softness:

a) surface softness,
b) surface smoothness,
c) elasticity (to compression and stretching).

Fabric Softening Process:
To change the hand properties of a fabric, we can apply mechanical, physical, chemical or combined techniques; some of these methods (sueding, raising) have already been explained in detail in previous sections of this handbook, while some others refers to machines that give different degrees of softness, by means of high-speed rope processing in wet or dry conditions, with the drying stage carried out during the treatment (with or without softeners or enzymes.)

The functional core of these machines are the two tunnels where the fabric is fed through two Venturi tubes. The energy applied for drawing the material is produced only by air and pressure. The fabric flowing through the Venturi tubes is pushed at high speed against a grid on the machine rear side; the fabric then slides on Teflon-coated chutes and reaches the machine front side to start the cycle again; the fabric can reach a speed of 1000 m/min., depending on the type and weight of the different textiles to be processed and according to the desired results. 

Schemes of fabric softening machines

This unit applies physical and mechanical principles on fundamental elements such as: 

• air, which is the fabric propeller and drawing element; 
• the mechanical stress exerted on the fabric inside the Venturi tubes and the stress due to the impact against the rear grid; 
•  the eventual action of heat.

It is also worth noticing that water is not a crucial element for the process; it is only a medium for carrying dissolved non biodegradable chemical additives (if required.) The combination of all these elements, almost free of polluting charge, cause the structural modification of the fibres making up the fabric.

They result in more or less marked surface modifications, which can radically change the appearance and the sensorial properties of the fabrics. The complexity of the finishing action starts inside the Venturi tube where the tail of the fabric is subjected simultaneously to a compressive action and to a subsequent series of vibrating pulses which tend to “random-modify” and compact the textile structures, eventually giving them different properties.

The one-way thrusting force is transformed into a impact force against the grid on which the fabric is pushed when emerging from the Venturi tube; this causes other modifications of the fabric and add structural and surface effects.

This simple treatment that combines physical and mechanical principles, carried out at a precise temperature set by the operator, is sufficient to create particular effects on the morphology of fibres and the weave. The modifications produced by this treatment are very different and not only affect the colour, appearance and hand properties of the fabric, but also add new properties, e.g. modifying the refraction and diffraction of light on the fabric surface.

The most notable effects in terms of style and added value are obtained on linen, a precious delicate fibre, particularly difficult to process without using chemicals.

The combination of a chemical product or an enzyme liquor with the mechanical treatment can be carried out not only on linen but also on many other widely used fibres such as Tencel and polynosic fibres, imparting a draping, full and lively hand.

All these effects are obtained thanks to the air thrust and to the following impact against the grid, or to the pressure of rollers on the fabric rope. Comparing the effects of this treatment on a Tencel fabric and on a similar treatment carried out on a dyeing machine, we can see that, as previously explained, this finishing process not only affects the appearance of the fabric, but also .cleans up. the fabric surface homogeneously, as a result providing good anti-pilling properties.

The best softness results can be obtained by carrying out the above mentioned physical mechanical processes and by applying a special chemical softening agent.

As a general rule, the softening agents applied are hygroscopic or lubricating agents, which facilitate the fibre sliding within the fabric structure, thus granting easier deformation and creasing of the fabric. In most cases, the duration of the effect is limited since the products applied during the treatment are eliminated by subsequent washing; for this reason they must be applied in the final stage of the treatment. The most common softeners are below:

1. Non-ionic Softener
2. Anionic Softener
3. Cationic Surfactants
4. Silicone-Based Softeners
5. Reactive Softeners

Non-ionic Softeners: 

Generally ethers and polyglycol esters, oxiethylates products, paraffins and fats. These softening agents are generally less efficient than anionic and cationic ones but they withstand the effects of hard waters, acid or basic environment and also in presence of cations and anions, therefore the normal fabric care conditions.

Anionic Softeners: 

Sulphoricinates, anionic surfactants produced by the condensation of fatty acids. They have good characteristics as lubricating softening agents and give the fabric a full hand; they are unstable in hard water and acid environment. In addition, they must not cause yellowing at condensation temperatures.

Cationic Surfactants: 

Usually they are quaternary ammonium salts, amino-esters and amino amides; they are recommended for all types of fibre, and can be also applied with exhaustion process in acid environment (pH 4-5). These are the best softening agents and are also called molecular velveting. Agents because they form bonds with the cationic group on the surface of the fibre generally with negative electric potential. They can give some problem in presence of large anions, and they can cause dye toning, or a reduction in fastness to light values in the presence of direct and reactive dyes; they also have a high polluting charge as waste water (bactericides).

Silicone-Based Softeners: 

These are generally polysiloxane derivatives of low molecular weight. They are insoluble in water, and therefore must be applied on fabrics after dissolution in organic solvents, or in the form of disperse products. They feature quite good fastness to washing. They create a lubricating and moderately waterproof film on the surface and give fabrics a velvetysilky hand (desirable for velvets, upholstery fabrics and emerised fabrics)

Reactive Softeners: 

N-methylol derivatives of superior fatty amides or urea compounds replaced with fatty acids. The products have to be cross-linked and provide permanent softness and water repellency.

As explained previously, even though some softeners can be applied with exhaustion processes on yarns, when softening fabrics, the best technique is the continuous pad-wetting process followed by a drying stage in a stenter. This treatment must be carried out at the end of the finishing process; for this reason, softening is usually performed simultaneously with other dimensional stability processes (width stabilisation, weft and warp straightening). It is worth remembering that the use of softeners can reduce the fastness to rubbing of synthetic fibres dyed with disperse dyes, as the fatty surface layer tend to attract the dye molecules after hot treatments. 

Wool Glazing Machine | Process of Wool Glazing

Wool Glazing Machine

This special machine is used to perform functional finishing on wool fabrics after raising finishing. The machine is made up of two different units. 

1.Starching Unit

2.Glazing Unit

The Starching Unit Includes:
1) a vat containing water and silicones;
2) a variable-speed extracting cylinder to reduce the quantity of liquid to be passed onto the fabric;
3) a brush coated with horsehair adhering to the extracting cylinder and passing the liquid onto the fibre ends of the fabric, simultaneously combing and lining up the fibres.

The Glazing Unit Includes:  

•  A crenellated polishing cylinder (made of steel and coated with hard chrome) heated by means of electric resistances at temperatures up to 220°C and four spiral grooves on which hard-steel combs are assembled. These combs have very fine teeth to enhance the efficiency of fibre ironing during the process;

• A felt sleeve, rotating at the same speed of the fabric, presses the fabric onto the polishing cylinder. The contact arc on the polishing cylinder can vary and the cylinder can reach a temperature of 130°C.

Wool glazing machine

The fabric with the fibre ends already combed and wet come under the polishing cylinder, which dries and irons the pile, and confers a lustrous appearance by giving a soft and smooth hand, also thanks to the silicones added to the starching vat (thanks to this process the fabric acquires a hand similar to the precious wool one).

By adjusting the temperature and the speed of the polishing cylinder, the contact arc of the fabric on the cylinder and the contrasting pressure of the felting material, it is possible to obtain different types of finishing (from the laid down to the perfectly lined up one).

Raising or Napping Finishing | Working Process of Raising FinishingProcess

Raising or Napping

A finishing process that raises the surface fibers of a fabric by means of passage over rapidly revolving cylinders covered with metal points or teasel burrs. Outing, flannel, and wool broadcloth derive their downy appearance from this finishing process. Napping is also used for certain knit goods, blankets, and other fabrics with a raised surface.

The raising process is a very old technique known also to Romans (as pictured in some paintings found in Pompeii). This operation is particularly suitable for wool and cotton fabrics; it gives a fuzzy surface by abrading the cloth and pulling the fibre end to the surface. During those last years this process has also been applied on polyester/viscose blends and acrylic fabrics. 

By means of this process a hairy surface can be given to both face and back of the cloth providing several modifications of the fabric appearance, softer and fuller hand and bulk increase. This enhances the resistance of the textile material to atmospheric agents, by improving thermal insulation and warmth provided by the insulating air cells in the nap. The fuzzy surface is created by pulling the fibre end out of the yarns by means of metal needles provided with hooks shelled into the rollers that scrape the fabric surface. The ends of the needles protruding from the rollers are 45°-hooks; their thickness and length can vary and they are fitted in a special rubber belt spiral-wound on the raising rollers. These rollers are generally alternated with a roller with hooks directed toward the fabric feed direction (pile roller), and a roller with the hooks fitted in the opposite direction (counterpile roller).

Raising rollers

The machine also includes some rotating brushes, which suction-clean the nibs in pile and counterpile directions. Actually the trend goes towards a ratio of raising rollers/pile rollers equal or 1/3. The two series of rollers have independent motion and can rotate with different speed and direction thus carrying out different effects.

Raising (napping) machine

1: roller; 

2: rollers equipped with hooks;
3: fabric;

4: nib cleaning brushes;

5: fabric tension adjustment

The action of these systems is almost powerful and the results depend upon the effects and the type of fabric desired . The raising effect can be obtained by adjusting the fabric tension (5) or by adjusting the speed and the roller rotation direction (2).

Once a certain limit has been exceeded, the excessive mechanical stress could damage the fabric: it is therefore better, when carrying out a powerful raising, to pass the wet fabric through the raising machine many times (dry when processing cotton fabrics) and treat the fabrics in advance with softening-lubricating agents. 

Raising the face of the fabric

The pile extraction is easier when carried out on single fibres: it is therefore suitable to reduce the friction between the fibres by wetting the material or, in case of cellulose fibres, by previously steaming the fabric. For the same reasons, it is better to use slightly twisted yarns.

The same machine allows different options of independent motions:  

1. Fabric moving between entry and exit 

2. Motion of large drum 

3. Motion of raising rollers

The raising intensity can be adjusted by suitably combining the above mentioned independent motions, the tension of the textile material, the number of .pilewise. or . counterpile. raising rollers and their relative speed. It is possible to obtain .combed pile. raising effect, “semi-felting” effect with fibres pulled out and re-entered in the fabric, and complete felting effect.

The raising machine is equipped with two overlapping drums each one featuring 24 rollers, which can process two faces or face and back of the same fabric. The drums assembled on a standard machine can rotate separately one from the other in the fabric feeding direction or in the opposite direction by carrying out a counter rotation. In this model all the functions are carefully monitored and controlled by a computer system; in particular all the commands are driven by alternating power motors controlled by “Sensorless” vector inverters. 

The control electric system features:
1).  PLC programmable controller for machine and alarms automation; 

2).  Touch screen to program and update all processing parameters; 

3). Operating conditions of each single raising process (up to one million .recipes”) that can be stored to facilitate the batch reproduction. 

Furthermore, a series of special pressure rollers can be assembled on the feeding cylinders to prevent the fabric from sliding, thus granting an extremely smooth raising. The raising process ability lies merely in raising the desired quantity of fibre ends without excessively reducing the fabric resistance. For this reason, the technique applying the alternated use of pile and counterpile rollers is the most widely used since it minimises the loss of fibres from the fabric and the consequent resistance reduction.

Standard raising machines have been designed to work with fabrics powerfully tensioned essentially because they are not equipped with an efficient and reliable tension control. 

This gives rise to the effects detailed below:

1) The contact surface between the fabric and the raising cylinders is quite small;
2) The hook nibs work only superficially on the fabric and the raising effect is quite reduced;
3) The fabric width is drastically reduced.

The above mentioned inconveniences have now been eliminated thanks to the last generation of raising machines, which reduce the number of passages and carry out the raising process by gently tensioning the fabric.

Introduction of Merchandiser/Merchandising | Objects of Merchandising |Qualities of Merchandiser | Function of Merchandisers

Merchandise means goods bought and sold; and trading of goods. Merchandising is an activity of selling and promoting the goods.

Merchandiser is a person who interacts with the buyer and seller, and also puts efforts into proper relation between buying offices/ buying agents/ agency and seller/ exporter in terms of executing an order.

A garment export unit generally has many departments like stores, cutting, production, packing, checking etc. Merchandising department is the star of the department among all the working departments in the Export concern, because Merchandising is the only department having maximum control over the departments and total responsible for Profit and loss of the company.

The job of a merchandiser is to co ordinate with the entire department in the office as well as the customers. Merchandiser meets the buyers and collects the details of their requirements etc., to develop the relationship with the customer.

Objects of Merchandising
Merchandising denotes all the planned activities to execute and dispatch the merchandise on time, taking into consideration of the 4 Rs to replenish the customer.

Right Quantity: To dispatch right quantity of product what buyer ordered.
Right Quality: It should be with right quality as accepted both parties.
Right Cost: Everybody wants more from what they are paid.
Right Time: No one wants to wait idle even in a Restaurant. Keeping delivery schedule is mandatory.

Qualities of Merchandiser

Planning Capability: Merchandiser should be capable of planning, based on the planning the order is to be followed. If the planning is not done properly it will directly affect the delivery time of the order.

Decision making: For a Merchandiser, decision making power is most important. He should think about the decision to be taken and to act in a right way.

Communication Skill: The communication is very much important to promote the business activity. The merchandiser should remember that communication must be lurid and should having face to face conversation with the buyer.

Loyalty: Loyalty is an essential character of human beings. Especially for the business people like merchandiser it is a must.

Knowledge about the field: Merchandiser should have adequate knowledge about the garments, Computer knowledge, and technical knowledge to communicate with different people in the business is a must.

Co-ordinate & Co-operate: Merchandiser is the person who is actually co-ordinate with the number of departments. To Co-ordinate with different people in the industry he should be co- operative.

Monitoring ability: Merchandiser should monitor to expedite the orders.

Other qualities: Education, Experience, Situational Management, Ability to Evaluate, Dedication, Knowledge of expediting procedures.

Function of Merchandisers

1. Developing new samples, execute sample orders
2. Costing
3. Programming
4. Raw materials / Accessories arrangement
5. Production scheduling (or) route card drafting
6. Approval of various Process, Pattern and size set
7. Pre production follow up
8. Meet Inspection Agencies
9. Production controlling
10. Identifying shortages and make arrangement for the shortages
11. Following quality assurance procedures, quality control procedures
12. Monitoring the in-house, sub-contractors and junior activities
13. Buyer communication
14. Communication with sub-contractors, processing units & other 3rd parties
15. Proper reporting
16. Highlighting to the management
17. Record maintenance
18. Developing samples
19. Placement of orders to suppliers
20. Taking measures for consistent production
21. Taking preventive action to maintain the targeted performance in all areas of activities
22. Attending meeting with superiors and furnishing the required details about merchandising

Purchase order (PO) is received from the buyer which includes:
• PO no/date
• Buyer/Consignee
• Garment no
• measurement
• the description of the garment
• L/C date
• Last date within which shipment to be reach the destination.
• Sign and seal
• Order validity date

After receiving PO from the buyer merchandiser issues PO for the fabric unit, buttons, thread, dyeing unit, printing, embroidery and other raw materials. These raw materials’ are checked and color, quality and size approved by the merchandiser.

Skein Dyeing Machine/Arm Dyeing Machine | Working Process of SkeinDyeing Machine

This is the most suitable machine for dyeing delicate yarns (Silk, Bemberg, etc.) since it prevents the material being too tightly packed; in fact other skein dyeing systems frequently produce an excessive packing of the dyed material. The machine is equipped with horizontal arms perforated in the upper part; skeins are stacked and suspended on this rack. The liquor, forced through the arm holes, penetrates the skeins and is then collected in an underlying vat. Standard machines are equipped with a rod which moves the skeins at preset times, changing the bearing point to obtain a more uniform dyeing. During the skein motion, the flow of the liquor is stopped to avoid the formation of tangles in the yarn; since yarns are not fixed to rigid supports, they can thoroughly shrink. This machine does not run under pressure. It is possible to dye at steady temperatures since the liquor is contained in a separate tank. 

Skein Dyeing Machine

Modular skein dyeing machine with pullout arms. Pullout arms also allow the loading and unloading of skeins far from the dyeing machine, without manually intervening in the intermediate dyeing, squeezing and drying operations. It can be used for silk, cotton, viscose and Cashmere yarns.

The operating costs of this machine are generally very high because it require a very high liquor ratio (1:15 . 1:25 . 1:30 ). Standby times for loading and unloading operations are also very high and the arms must be often cleaned. This machine can be used also for scouring and finishing processes.

Some machine manufacturers have designed machines with slant covers to avoid unwanted liquor dripping on the skeins; the skein rotation is determined by the perforated arms, and not by the rotation of the skein-lifting device when the arm is stopped; it is therefore possible to eliminate the sliding contact with the skeins and preserve them perfectly.

There are also package dyeing machines with triangle-shape arms, arranged radially on a variable-speed rotor. When the dyeing process has terminated, the material can be centrifuged and dried, by forcing a hot air flow into the arms and through the skeins.

Winch Dyeing Machines | Working Process of Winch Dyeing Machines |Advantages/Limitations of Winch Dyeing Machine

A dyeing machine consisting essentially of a dye vessel fitted with a driven winch ( usually above the liquor level) which rotates and draws a length of fabric, normally joined end to end, through the liquor.

Winch dyeing machine

Winch dyeing machine is a rather old dyeing machine for fabrics in rope form with stationary liquor and moving material. The machine operates at a maximum temperature of 95-98°C. The liquor ratio is generally quite high (1:20-1:40). Winch dyeing machines are a low cost design that is simple to operate and maintain, yet versatile in application proving invaluable for preparation, washing or after treatments as well as the dyeing stage itself. In all winch dyeing machines a series of fabric ropes of equal length are immersed in the dye bath but part of each rope is taken over two reels or the winch itself. The rope of fabric is circulated through the dye bath being hauled up and over the winch throughout the course of the dyeing operation. Dyestuff and auxiliaries may be dosed manually or automatically in accordance with the recipe method.

A winch dyeing machine

Description and Dyeing Method on Winch Dyeing Machine
The basic principle of all winch dyeing machines is to have a number of loops or ropes of the fabric in the dye bath, these ropes are of equal length , which are mostly immersed in the liquor in the bath. The upper part of each rope runs over two reels which are mounted over dyebath. At the front of the machine , above the top of the dye liquor , is a smaller reel, which is called jockey or fly roller.

The fly roller remain free wheeling along with fabric rope. At the back of winch tank is the winch wheel, which pulls the fabric rope from the dye bath over the jockey reel for dropping in the dye bath for immersion. From the dropped location , the fabric rope travels back . to be lifted and fed to winch wheel.

The dyeing process on winch dyeing machines is based on higher M:L as compared with other dyeing machines. The process is conducted with very little tension . The total dyeing time is lengthier as compared to other machines.

Advantages of Winch Dyeing Machine
1. Construction and operation of winch are very simple.
2. The winch dyeing machines are suitable for types of wet processing operations from desizing to softening.
3.The winch dyeing machine is suitable for practically all types of fabrics ,which can withstand creasing in rope form processing.
4. Thr tension exerted on winch is less than jigger dyeing machine,the material thus dyed is with fuller hand.
5. The appearance of the dyed goods is clean and smooth on winch dyeing machines.

Limitations of Winch Dyeing Machine
1. Batch dyeing operations needs trimming, sewing, opening out the rope , loading and unloading for individual lots separately.
2. Since several lengths of fabric are run over the winch reel into the liquor and sewn end to end,Continuous length processing is not possible in a single batch.
3. Fabric is processed in rope form which may lead to crease marks , particularly in heavy , woven , thin and light synthetics.
4. Most of the machine work under atmospheric conditions.

Textile Washing Treatment | Sequence of the Washing Steps | Types ofWashing | Textile Washing Process

Washing in Textile

Rinsing and washing are the operations carried out most frequently during a complete textile finishing cycle. They are almost always connected to key treatments and aimed at removing from the fabric insoluble matters, matters already in solution or an emulsion of other impurities. During the fabric preparation process, for example, washing is carried out after desizing, boiling and other bleaching and mercerising processes; in dyeing, the washing stage is necessary to complete the dyeing process itself or to eliminate the dyestuff which has not been fixed; during the printing stage, washing performs a finishing action. When using vat dyes or disperse dyes, the washing process aims at removing insoluble pigment substances from the fibre surface by means of wetting or dissolving agents.

This could therefore be considered a crucial treatment in the whole textile process, because of the frequent use and strong economic impact. Manufacturers increasingly focus their attention on reducing water consumption, which leads to subsequent energy and hot water saving as well as a reduction in wastewater. Together with traditional washing systems with vats equipped with “vertical cylinders” the market offers horizontal washing units, which reduce the liquor ratio and the energy and water consumption for each kilogram of washed material.

Washing includes a chemical-physical process, which removes the dirt from the substrate, and a series of physical operations aiming at improving the “feedback action”.

The sequence of the various washing steps is the following:
a. Formation of the detergent liquor (transfer of matter + energy by mixing);
b. Reaching of the process temperature and wetting (transfer of the liquor to the material);
c. Separation of impurities and emulsification (transfer of matter from one step to the other);
d. Removal of the liquor from the fibre (transfer of macroscopic matter);
e. Drying (interstage transfer of heat and matter).

Often these steps occur simultaneously. The use of surfactants (detergents) during the washing stage is extremely important to speed up the wetting of the textile material, to facilitate the removal of dirt from the substrate, thus keeping the emulsion inside the liquor and preventing the particles laying down again on the fibre.

Crucial factors are water (which must be quite soft to avoid precipitation of Ca and Mg salts which could give a rough and coarse hand to the textile) and chemical products to be used (emulsifying agents, softening agents and surfactants).

Types of Washing:
Washing can be performed on fabrics either in open-width or in rope form. Rope washing is more effective than open-width washing thanks to a stronger mechanic action, which favors the cleansing, and the relaxation of the fabric structure; for delicate fabrics an open-width washing must be preferred to avoid marks and creases. Open-width washing is also the best choice for processing huge lots.

Rope Washing
Substantially, batch piece washing machines are made up of a couple of squeezing cylinders, which make the fabric swell (the fabric is previously sewn on top and bottom and takes the shape of a continuous ring); these cylinders are assembled inside a vessel, whose lower part contains the detergent liquor. It is possible to wash a fabric inside this vessel, by feeding it into restricted area without laying it stretched out. 

Rope washing machine

The efficiency of this operation is enhanced by the mechanic action, which facilitates both detergency and tension relaxation. This operation is highly cost-efficient because open-width washing allows only one working position and therefore only limited loads can be processed (max. 180 kg) while a rope washing machine can include from one to eight ropes, with an overall weight exceeding 600 kg. Furthermore rope washing machines grant reduced operating times thanks to a more effective mechanic action.

Open-width Washing
An open-width washing machine is usually a system featuring a vertical path washing with driven cycle of multiple action baths, with a resulting 30/40% water and steam saving. This operating unit is manufactured in several versions (10-15-30 meters) and can be used for every kind of preparation and finishing treatment. Four different washing actions alternate inside this machine:

1) Washing on rising paths;

2) Washing on sloping-down paths, carried out by means of spray nozzles, which atomise on both face and back of fabrics, performing a strong penetration action;

3) “Vibraplus” effect washing, which removes from the fabric the threadlike elements (fibrils) that do not dissolve in water;

4) Extraction washing by means of vessel intermediate squeezing. The longitudinal tension of the fabric remains perfectly unchanged on the whole path; it can be adjusted between 5 and 20 kg by means of upper cylinders equipped with self-adjusting control system which generates a sliding motion crease-and-fold proof also on extremely delicate fabrics. Plush fibrils are removed from the vessel with no need for brushes or liquor dilutions. 

Open-width washing machine

Another type of machine divides the washing process into single steps, which are systematically repeated. In this way the whole process can be not only constantly monitored but also accurately calculated. 

Wool Finishing Processes | Flow Chart of Wool(Worsted and Woollen)Finishing

Wool Finishing Processes

The sequence of the treatments undergone by wool fibres in various forms (staple, sliver, yarn, woven and knitted fabric) varies according to the modification process of the fibre structure, according to the type of processing system used and according to the experience of the operator (these criteria are valid for all fibres).
Therefore the wool processing cycle can vary accordingly: an example is shown in the following. 

Worsted Cycle:

Flowchart of worsted wool finishing process

Woollen Cycle:

Flowchart of woollen wool finishing process

Knitting Elements in a Latch Needle Raschel Machine | Cross-section ofa Latch Needle Raschel Machine

Raschel machines (Figures A and B) originally had a gauge expressed in needles per 2 inches (5 cm), so that, for example, a 36-gauge raschel would have eighteen needles per inch. Now, the standard E gauge (needles per inch) is generally used. There is a wide gauge range, from E 1 to E 32.

Their chain links are usually numbered in even numbers, 0, 2, 4, 6 etc., generally with two links per course. Raschel sinkers perform only the function of holding down the loops whilst the needles rise.They are not joined together by a lead across their ends nearest to the needle bar so they can move away clear of the needles, towards the back of the machine, for the rest of the knitting cycle.The needle trick plate verge acts as a fabric support ledge and knock-over surface.
The fabric is drawn downwards from the needles, almost parallel to the needle bar, at an angle of 120–160 degrees, by a series of take-down rollers. This creates a high take-up tension, particularly suitable for open fabric structures such as laces and nets. 

Fig. A. Knitting elements in a latch needle raschel machine

Fig. B. Cross-section of a latch needle raschel machine

The warp beams are arranged above the needle bar, centred over the rocker shaft, so that warp sheets pass down to the guide bars on either side of it.The beams are placed above the machine so that it is accessible at the front for fabric inspection and at the back for mechanical attention to the knitting elements. The guide bars are threaded, commencing with the middle bars and working outwards from either side of the rocker-shaft. They are numbered from the front of the machine.

With the raschel arrangement, there is accommodation for at least four 32-inch diameter beams or large numbers of small diameter pattern bars. The accessibility of the raschel machine, its simple knitting action, and its strong and efficient take-down tension make it particularly suitable for the production of coarse gauge open-work structures employing pillar stitch, inlay lapping variations and partlythreaded guide bars. These are difficult to knit and hold down with the tricot arrangement of sinkers. Additional warp threads may be supplied at the selvedges to ensure that these needles knit fabric overlaps, otherwise a progressive press-off of loops may occur.

Introduction of a Needle | Specifications of Needle

The typical “European” specifications for a needle includes a word, a number (usually a four digit number) and a final combination of letters and numbers. For example: Vota 78.60 G.02 The capital letter at the beginning of the word ( “V”), identifies the origin of the needle (obtained from a wire, pressed or die-cut), the type, the number of butts and the type of tail. The other capital letters have a very precise meaning, except for the vowels “e” and “a” which are added to make the word pronounceable, and indicate the shape and the height of the butt, the eventual existence of a groove and its size, the length of the tail and some other features of the

needle.

Neddle

The next group of numbers identifies the needle according to the length and the gauge. The first part indicates the whole length rounded off to the mm (in our case that makes 78 mm); the second part indicates the gauge of the needle in hundredths of millimetres (in our case the gauge of the needle is equal to 0.60 mm).

The final group of letters and numbers has to be read as follows. The first capital letter indicates the needle manufacturer (For example Z for Torrington, E for Exeltor, G for Groz-Beckert). The next number is used to distinguish a specific needle among all the needles produced by the same manufacturer.

The next letter refers to some particular features of the needle: for some needles an “A” indicates that the latch has been fixed with an angular pressed pin while an “R” means that the latch has been fixed with a straight pressed pin. For other needles, the latch fixing method is indicated by a “0” before the last number. A “0” indicates that the latch has been fixed with a standard pressed pin; no “0” means that the latch has been fixed with a screw pin.

3D-Weaving | Manufacturing Process of 3D-Weaving | Application of 3DWeaving Fabric

 3D-Weaving

3D-Weaving is a complete new concept in case of weaving. The first method of 3D woven fabric denotes 3 Dimensional fabrics, that is length, width and breadth. In 3 Dimensional fabrics, the thickness is an important criterion. Ordinary fabrics also have length, width and breadth, but in the 3 Dimensional fabrics, the thickness is much more than ordinary fabric. The thickness is achieved by forming multiplayer using multi series of warp and multi series of weft, which are intersecting at regular 90o angle as in usual cloth weaving principle.

It cannot be performed with existing traditional methods and machines. It interlaces a multiple layer warp with multiple horizontal wefts and multiple vertical wefts producing directly shell, solid and tubular types of fully interlaced 3D fabrics with countless cross-sectional profiles.

First demonstrated in 1997, Dual-Directional (D-D) Shedding System is indispensable for performing 3D-weaving. This path breaking development has advanced the technology of weaving to a new dimension for the first time in its more than 27000 years of history.

Manufacturing Technology of 3D-Weaving
Special looms are required to operate the warp threads in 60o angle for weaving 3Dr-3 Directional fabrics. But the 3 Dimensional -3Dm- fabric can be woven by using ordinary loom with usual weaving principle-shedding, picking, beating - by having multi layers of warp and multi layers of weft. Even though the treble cloth with 3 series of warp and weft could be called 3Dm fabrics, in general, minimum 4 series of warp and weft are used in weaving to form several layers, one above the other to get the sufficient thickness resulting into 3 Dimensional fabric.
As per the principle of weft Tapestry fabric, to weave 3Dm fabrics, it is required to use one series of stitching warp and multi series of separating warp as per the number of layers to be formed. 

 As seen from the cross section, the stitching warp passes from top to bottom and bottom to top but all the separating warp lies almost straight and hence the stitching warp takes up more length than the separating warp. Therefore, the stitching warp is brought from a loose tension beam and the entire separating warp is brought from another normal tension beam.

The following points are to be understood from both the cross sections: -

The first layer weft (Face) - shown as “a” - lies between the stitching warp (shown as 1) and first separating warp series (shown as 3).
The second layer of weft (Middle) - shown as “b”- lies between the first and second separating warp series (shown as 3 and 4).

Application of 3D Weaving Fabric
A new method has been developed for the manufacture of bifurcated prosthesis used in medical applications and they are used to replace the defective blood vessels in patients so as to improve blood circulation.

The 3D fabrics have recently entered the medical field. Their specific area of application is in the weaving of vascular prosthesis. Vascular prosthesis are surgically implantable materials. They are used to replace the defective blood vessels in patients so as to improve blood circulation. Conventional types of prosthesis were made from air corps parachute cloth, vignon sailcloth, and other types of clothing materials.

Materials such as nylon, Teflon, orlon, stainless steel, glass, and Dacron polyester fibre have been found to be highly suitable for the manufacture of prosthesis. These materials were found to be significantly stable with regard to resistance to degradation, strength, and were not adversely affected by other factors. Dacron polyester, which has bio-compatibility and high tensile strength, is being used over a period of time as suture thread or artificial ligaments.

Knitting Action of Bearded Needle Simplex Machine

Fig: Knitting action of bearded needle simplex machine

Figure: Shows the knitting action on the front needle bar; an identical sequence occurs afterwards on the back needle bar to complete the machine cycle.

(a) First rise of the needle bar. The knitting action has been completed on the back needle bar for the previous machine cycle. The front sinker/presser bar has withdrawn, leaving the back sinker bar to support the fabric. The guide bars have completed their third swinging movement so that they are now swinging towards the back of the machine, allowing the front needle bar to rise with the back needle bar still near to knock-over and thus helping to hold down the fabric. The front needle bar rises sufficiently to enable the old overlaps under the beards to slide down onto the needle stems.

(b) Return swing, second rise then lowering and pressing. As the guides swing to the back of the machine, the warp ends are wrapped over the needle beards. The front needle bar is now lifted to a higher position so that the new overlaps slip from the beards to a high position on the needle stems. As the front needle bar is lowered to cover the new overlaps, the front sinker presser bar moves to contact and press the beards so that the old overlaps slide onto the closed beards which descend through them.

(c) Completion of landing and knock-over, underlap and third guide bar swing. Whilst the needles descend further to knock-over the old overlaps, the guide bars make their underlap shog behind the front needle bar and then commence their swing towards the front of the machine to allow the back needle bar to rise for the second part of the machine sequence.

Knitting Action of the Crochet Machine

Figure: illustrates the knitting action of a crochet machine:

1. The inlay.Whilst the needle is withdrawn into its trick during knock-over of the previous warp overlap, the weft inlay tube is lowered. As it traverses in an underlap shog, the weft is laid below the level of the needle and on top of the warp thread that extends from its head to the warp guide.

2. Clearing the warp overlap. The weft tube rises slightly on completion of its traverse movement to allow the needle to move out of its trick to clear its old warp overlap.

3. The warp overlap wrap. The warp guide rises between the needles and automatically overlaps from the left, lowering itself again on the right side of its needle.

4. Warp knock-over and underlap. The needle now retires into its trick to knockover the old overlap, whilst the warp guide is cammed under its needle to the start position for its next overlap, thus completing the closed lap pillar. NB:The closed lap is used for the carbine needle but the alternating overlap of the open lap pillar stitch used with the conventional latch and bearded needles gives a more balanced loop structure. Tricot lapping with two guide bars produces a secure fabric which does not unrove.

Importance of Color in Textile

The Importance of Color We Wear
Colors have a demonstrable psychological effect. So, our automatic reaction to colors is so strong. The sight of red means warning and white mean simplicity and respective of title. Military uniforms are intentionally colored to give statement and impose authority. Colors are used in many ways to assert recognition because they are fairly easy to read and understand.

Not all colors are good for any individual because of different skin color tones. The best way to find your personal skin color is to ask a friend who can be objective about your situation. Your friend can “drape” you with big swatches of different colors. The most flattering colors are sometimes the good colors for you. Often, you’ll be surprised that the color you like best is also the best color for you.

Once you know your personal color, practice by understanding their association with seasonable colors (spring, summer, winter, and fall). They can give a set of guidelines for flattering effect of your clothes. You’ll also be able to forecast colors for the next season.

List of Popular Colors and How Our Emotions Respond

BLACK	Severe, mysterious, sophisticated, glum, depressing, deadly
BLUE	Serene, calming, cool, quiet, sleepy, sad
BROWN	Warm, earthy, drab
GRAY	Well-informed, subtle, dignified, gloomy, cold
GREEN	Fresh, successful, loving, greedy, restful, calm.
HOT COLORS	(ie. pink) Wild, sensual, daring, flashy, vulgar
ORANGE	Happy, cheerful, new, motivated, garish, warm.
PINK	Soft, innocent, delicate, feminine, delicious
RED	Alert, warning, sexual, aggressive, energetic, cheerful, angry, vital, exciting
VIOLET	Royal, rich, stately, passionate, subtle but sexy, impressive, alone
WHITE	Clean, pure, young, safe, simple
YELLOW	Sunny, bright, hopeful, optimistic, joyful, clear, positive, alive

It is important to understand that color has three properties. These properties do not affect the meaning of colors unless their appearances have actually changed (ie hot violet, frosted brown)

Color Guidelines According to Seasons

Summer	Think clear, contrast and bold colors.
Fall	Think soft, cool, slightly grayed colors.
Spring	Think bright, fresh and lively colors.
Winter	Think deep, dark and muted colors.